What were the causes and consequences of the War of Independence 1857 – 58?

• How important was the uprising of 1857 to the future development of Pakistan?

By the 1850s the British were confident that their control over the Indian subcontinent was secure. But in 1857 British authority was challenged by a violent uprising. Although this attempt at revolution failed, its legacy was to inspire later generations to seek independence for their own countries.

There is a lot of disagreement about the causes and importance of the revolt. Historians cannot even agree what to call it: the British call this event, the Indian Mutiny; Pakistani and Indian historians call it the Great Revolt, the Indian Revolution, the National Uprising, the Great Rebellion of 1857 or the War of Independence.

• The activities of the Christian missionaries were the main reason why the War of Independence broke out. Do you agree? Explain your answer. [14]

Many Indians feared that Islam, Hinduism and Sikhism were under threat from British rule. The British always denied this, but they were not believed. It was probably not the case, but it was true that Christian missionaries came to India to convert the local population as well as set up schools. In these schools, missionaries taught Christianity and expected locals who worked for them to give up their religion and follow the Christian teachings.   

However, historians have identified other reasons also which contributed to the outbreak of the war.  For example, Lord Dalhousie’s use of the ‘Doctrine of Lapse’ was particularly unpopular. The seizure of many states including Oudh (Awadh) in 1856 convinced many Indian leaders that the British were simply greedy land grabbers.  

At a lower level in society, there was also resentment at the lack of opportunities for native Indians in the civil service. Added to this, English had replaced Persian as the official language of the administration and as the language in which education would be given.

The British also followed a practice of imposing high taxation to ensure that they exploited India’s wealth to the full. Peasants and small landowners, in particular found it difficult to pay the increasing taxes and resentment grew. At the same time as they were imposing high taxes on India, the British were also keeping the salary of sepoys (infantry) low, causing more resentment.  

Although the revolt started over the issue of ‘greased cartridges’, there were more deep-seated reasons for discontentment amongst members of the armed forces. Most of the soldiers in East India Company’s army were Indian. The sepoys (سپاہی) and sowars [(سوار) cavalry] were almost exclusively Indian, but the officer class was almost exclusively British. This caused great resentment. There were also regular rumours that Muslim, Hindu and Sikh soldiers would be forced to convert to Christianity and that they might be sent to fight abroad, which was unacceptable to the Hindus. The use of Indian troops in Afghanistan had also proved unpopular as Hindu soldiers did not want to leave ‘Mother India’.

This short discussion suggests me that although there was resentment over many issues, the war actually broke out because the sepoys were discontented with the British rule and over greased cartridges some sepoys defied their seniors and were court martialed. They further committed acts of treason and ran away to gather further support for themselves; this gave rise to the sepoys’ revolt.    

• What was the Cawnpore massacre? [4]

At Kanpur (Cawnpore), the troops joined the revolt and killed their officers and any Europeans that they could find. They were led by Nana sahib, who had personal grievance against the British for stopping a large pension he had been receiving. A British force managed to hold on to a defensive position for three weeks. Eventually, having been given a promise of safe passage of the area, the British surrendered. But tragically, Nana Sahib opened fire on the barges taking them down the river. Almost every soldier was killed together with 300 women and children. The survivors, four soldiers and 100 women and children were kept as prisoners. When British reinforcements arrived, Nan Sahib had his prisoners killed.

• Why did the uprising of 1857 fail?

Although resentment of the British was a single cause to fight for, the Indians were not coordinated or united in what they hoped to achieve. There was no general plan and no attempt to work together. In different places, different groups fought for different reasons. Although the Mughal Emperor as something of a figurehead, most Indian princes didn’t really want to see imperial power restored. No was there any real sense of national patriotism. India as too divided for such a feeling.

It seemed that the only real uniting force in the war was Islam. However, any degree of unity amongst the Muslims alarmed the Hindus and Sikhs who were not prepared to fight to restore power to the Muslim Mughal empire.

Perhaps the major reason for the failure of the Indians was that the British were too strong. Britain was on of the most powerful nations in the world at this time and its troops were experienced in warfare and highly trained in modern methods of fighting. They also had a good reputation for discipline on the battlefield.  

• Do you agree that the British defeated the Indians in the war because the Indians were not united? Give reasons for your answer. [14]

Although resentment of the British was a single cause to fight for, the Indians were not coordinated or united in what they hoped to achieve. There was no general plan and no attempt to work together. In different places, different groups fought for different reasons. For example, Nana Sahib fought because of a personal grievance against the British. Although the Mughal emperor was something of a figurehead, most Indian princes did not really want to see imperial power restored. Nor was there any real sense of national patriotism. India was too divided for such a feeling.

Perhaps the major reason for the failure of the Indians was that the British were too strong. Britain was one of the most powerful nations in the world at this time and its troops were experienced in warfare and highly trained in modern methods of fighting. They also had a good reputation for discipline on the battlefield.

The only hope the Indians had to defeat the British was that there should be general uprising across most of India and for the Indian troops to act together. As it was, the British kept control in more than three quarters of their possessions. They were skilled diplomats, and they were also well aware of Indians’ collective weaknesses. So, they found it easy to play the various groups off against each other.

I partially agree with the question statement but will add a more important factor which was the highly efficient British military machine that defeated Indians.

• What was the impact of the War of Independence 1857?

The failure of the war confirmed the British as masters of India. It had been intended to loosen the yoke of British control, but instead it tightened it.

After the war, the East India Company was abolished. Now the British government (in Britain) would take full responsibility for all matters in India. A member of the British Cabinet, the Secretary of State for India, was given responsibility for the government of the country. However, the direct responsibility was in the hands of the Governor-General, now called the Viceroy.

After the war, Bahadur Shah was put on trial and sentence to life imprisonment. Later in January 1877, the British Queen, Victoria, was appointed Empress of India. The British considered that the Muslim community was largely to blame for the war, and it was to be many years before they once more began to trust Muslims. The Muslims lost their political, social and economic importance. In contrast, the Hindus soon found favour with the British by adapting themselves to the new rule.    

• The History and Culture of Pakistan
• The War of Independence 1857 - 58