By Malcolm W. Browne Special to The New York Times
Jan. 3, 1972
RAWALPINDI, Pakistan, Jan. 2—President Zulfikar All Bhutto today ordered the nationalization of major Pakistani Industries and moved to break up an “undue concentration of economic power.”
In a brief speech to the nation, President Bhutto listed 10 categories that had been selected for nationalization, They were iron and steel; basic metals; heavy engineering; heavy electrical equipment; motor vehicles; tractors; petrochemical industries; and three utilities—electricity, gas and oil refinery and cement.
The companies involved were said to be worth a total of about $200‐million.
In a separate decree today it was announced that any company worth more than 10 mill lion rupees ($2‐million) in which a single family owns more than 50 per cent of the shares would also be nationalized.
Both the President and his Finance Minister, Dr. Mubashir Hasan, said that no foreign investment would be affected.
No Further Moves Duo
Other than the 20 specific “industrial units” — or companies—listed to be taken over, they said, the Government plans no further nationalization moves.
“It’ is our firm intention,” President Bhutto said, “to have a happy blend of the public and private sectors.”
Despite the seemingly sweeping character of the nationalization moves, most corporate executives here viewed them as comparatively mild and unlikely to have much effect on the economy.
Pakistan does not have a large industrial base and most of the categories listed for nationalization involve industries already controlled by the Government.
Industries not taken over in eluded cotton textile manufacturing, the largest single industrial group in the country and its biggest earner of hard currency. Also untouched were foreign‐owned concerns such as the United States‐owned Esso Fertilizers and the British owned. Attock Petroleum Company Ltd., the only oil‐producing company ‘in the’ country.
The Pakistani economy is based on agriculture, which accounts for more than half the national. income and employs two‐thirds of the work force. Rice and wheat are the main food crops. Jute, cotton and tea are the money crops.
The decision to nationalize seemed mainly aimed at the two dozen or so ‘Pakistani families regarded is the financial elite of the nation.
The passports of members of 22 such families have been impounded and President Bhutto has demanded that holdings of foreign currency abroad be returned to Pakistan. He has threatened those who do not bring back their holdings with penalties, Including imprisonment
Two Men Anrested
Last night the Government announced it had placed two scions of these families? Ahmed Dawood and Fakhurddin Valia, under six‐month house arrest.
Pakistani business executives did not seem especially disturbed by the new measures. One businessman said:
“Some of the things being nationalized are just about bankrupt anyway and will be little more than a paper loss for anyone. As for the antimonopoly, fair trade and protection of labor provisions, such laws have been on the books here since at least 1969. My personal hope is that Mr. Bhutto intends to do something about enforcing .them this time.”
The Einince Minister, Dr. Hasan,said that in the case of the businesses being nationalized, the, Government was not actually taking over corporate shares but was merejy replacing management. Employes will be kept on, he said. The companies affected, he added, may later be handed over :to pro,yincial governments.
Dr. Hasan said there was no intention of nationalizing banks:
Leftists Seek Stronger Moves
The moderate nature of the nationalization announced to.day is, not expected to satisfy the powerful leftist wing of President Bhutto’s Pakistan People’s party. These leftists have demanded that Pakistan’s entire economy be recast along State‐ownership lines.
Mr. Bhutto is a member of a wealthy land‐owning family. He seems to have gone to great pains to convince his countrymen that he will not use his position to protect his economic status.
Mr. Bhutto took office as President and Martial‐law Administrator on ,Dec. 20. He replaced. Gen., Agha Mohammad Yahya Khan,‐ who was forced to resign largely as the result of Pakistan’s defeat by India.
Mr. Bhutto said he would serve without salary. Yesterday, he ordered that all top members of the Government, including himself, make public declarations of their financial wealth.
Although Wajid Ali Shah was a capable ruler, the British residents gave exaggerated reports about his incompetence to the company authorities. This gave the East India Company a Casus Belli (cause for war in Latin) to conquer Awadh. On 7th February 1856, Lord Dalhousie ordered to depose Wajid Ali Shah on the account of alleged internal misrule. This was in line with Dalhousie’s Doctrine of Lapse, in which the British would take over a kingdom if there was misrule also. The Kingdom of Awadh was annexed in February 1856.
Taken from a History website
What does source A tell about the British attitude towards Indians? [3]
Source A implies that the British were greedy land grabbers who just wanted to occupy India for its resources. Apparently they had an agreement with the ruler of Awadh but they themselves violated it and took over the kingdom by using a lame excuse and their self-created doctrine.
Source B
A depiction of the Cawnpore Massacre
What is source B referring to? [5]
Source B is referring to the Cawnpore Massacre that took place in 1857. In the picture Europeans/British are shown being attacked and killed. Women and children can be seen which means these were the families of the British forces. Nana Sahib’s forces had an agreement with them allowing them to escape but while they were trying to exit, Nana Sahib’s men attacked and killed them. This massacre showed the hatred of Indians towards the British.
What was the impact of the War of Independence on the Muslims? [7]
The British considered that the Muslim community was largely responsible for the mutiny (the War of Independence) as though symbolically but it was Bahadur Shah II who was leading it and since the British had taken over India from Muslim rulers, they believed that the mutineers attempted to revive the Muslim rule if not the Mughal rule.
The British stopped recruiting men in their army from those Muslim groups who were involved in the war such as from Bengal and Awadh. The Sikhs, Punjabis / Pathans (they were Muslims but supported the British) and Gurkhas were given preference for recruitment.
The British also wanted to keep Muslims backward so the doors of education and employment were shut to them. Funding from Muslim schools was withdrawn. It was an attempt to keep them illiterate.
In contrast the Hindus took advantage of Muslims’ compromised position and filled the space by adapting themselves to the new rule. They accepted British education, learned to speak English and occupied almost all posts offered to Indians. Thus the Muslim community lost its social, economic and political status as a result of the War.
The most important reason why the War of Independence started was the introduction of the Doctrine of Lapse. Do you agree? Explain your answer. [10]
Of course the Doctrine of Lapse was an important reason why the War of Independence started. The Muslim state of Awadh and the Hindu state of Jhansi were occupied along with many others. Both areas showed strong rebellion during the war.
However, mutiny could not have spread fast only due to the above reason. There were other social, political, economic and military reasons too.
By 1857 the Mughal King (Bahadur Shah II) had little power left, but was an important symbolic figure. Dalhousei’s decision to move the royal family from the Red Fort of Delhi to the more obscure Qutub Sahi was seen as a sign of disrespect (of not only the King but his symbolic subjects – the Indians also).
The British were not only imposing their culture and lifestyle upon Indians but they treated them as an inferior race too. Their arrogant attitude coupled with the introduction of a new way of life with its railways, roads and telegraphs (which were actually built to facilitate the British rule rather than raising the standard of living of the people) was unacceptable to many Indians.
It was also true that Christian missionaries came to India to convert the local population as well as set up schools. In these schools the missionaries taught Christianity and expected locals who worked for them to give up their religion and follow the Christian teachings. Obviously it was unacceptable to many Indians.
The British also followed a practice of imposing high taxation to ensure that they exploited India’s wealth to the full. The British were also keeping the salary of sepoys (infantry) low. This economic reason caused much resentment.
Indian sepoys (infantry) and sowars (cavalry) were kept at low ranks despite serving for many years while the officer class was almost exclusively British. There were also regular rumours that Muslim, Hindu and Sikh soldiers would be forced to convert to Christianity and they might be sent to fight abroad which was religiously unacceptable to the Hindus.
Finally the greased cartridges proved to be the immediate reason of the War.In the light of the above arguments, I conclude that the Doctrine of Lapse was not the most important reason why the war started. I think the greased cartridge issue was the most important reason as it alone unleashed the sepoys’ wrath towards the British rule.
public hanging of Indians who took part in the War of IndependenceWhat happened at Cawnpore in 1857? [4]
CAIE MARKING SCHEME:
Reward each correct statement with 1 mark. 2 marks can be awarded for a developed statement.
Candidates might refer to: Indian troops, led by Nana Sahib, rose up against the British, trapping their forces who surrendered after 3 weeks. As they left, the British soldiers and 300 women and children were killed the remainder were kept as prisoners and later killed. Later the British carried out acts of revenge. Nana Sahib escaped.
Was religion the most important reason for the War of Independence in 1857? Give reasons for your answer. [14]
CAIE MARKING SCHEME:
Two explanations, one on religious and one on other reasons, are worth 9 marks.
Additional explanations awarded up to 13 marks
e.g.
Religious reasons(Please don’t use headings or bulleted points in your actual answers)
Christian missionaries came to India to convert the local population and set up schools. In these schools, the missionaries taught Christianity and expected local religions to be given up which was resented by the Muslim, Hindu and Sikh communities.
The British introduced a new gun that used cartridges coated in grease made from cow and pig fat. The soldiers had to rip open the cartridges with their teeth before loading. This caused great resentment as it was contrary to religious beliefs for both Muslim and Hindu communities and united them against the British.
Other reasons(Please don’t use headings or bulleted points in your actual answers)
The replacement of Persian and Sanskrit by English as the official language in the 1830s deeply upset both the Muslims and Hindus as they felt that their culture was being threatened.
The British imposed reforms on the Indian population such as abandoning purdah / suttee without consultation. This caused much unrest as it appeared that the British were trying to impose their culture on centuries old Indian customs, which was resented. (Purdah / suttee may also be seen as religious reasons.)
In 1852 the ‘Doctrine of Lapse’ was introduced and caused great unrest because any local kingdom not having a direct male heir had their lands taken over by the British.
Judgment
Write your judgement / evaluation.
To what extent were economic reforms the main cause of the War of Independence in 1857? Explain your answer. [10]
CAIE MARKING SCHEME:
Two explanations, one economic reforms and one on other causes, are worth six or seven marks.
Additional explanations on the same two reasons cannot be awarded more than eight marks.
Explanation of all reasons is worth nine marks
e.g.
Economic reforms(Please don’t use headings or bulleted points in your actual answers)
•The British imposed high taxation to exploit India’s wealth. Peasants and small landowners could not afford this, so many fell into poverty. Resentment grew because of the resulting starvation and suffering;
•The Sepoys were discontented because they did not get a fair deal. Their salaries were very low in comparison with those of the British soldiers and they had little chance of promotion. They were also angry over the lack of payment of extra allowances for service in newly conquered territories like Sindh;
•The East India Company banned the export of cotton (cloth, not the raw cotton) from India in 1800. This had a negative impact on many Indian communities who relied on making and selling cotton increasing poverty and also opposition towards the British.
Other causes(Please don’t use headings or bulleted points in your actual answers)
•The replacement of Persian and Sanskrit by English as the official language in the 1830s deeply upset both Muslim and Hindu groups as it was a threat to their culture;
•English became the official language making it more difficult for some of the Muslim community to get higher paying jobs;
•All women were forced to abandon purdah, which had been a custom for centuries and was widespread amongst, and strictly observed by Muslim women. This action by the British was unpopular amongst the Muslim community and opposed;
•In 1852 the ‘Doctrine of Lapse’ was introduced without consultation. This policy caused great unrest because it meant that the British could take over any local kingdom that did not have a direct male heir;
•The British introduced a new rifle with a paper cartridge that was coated in both cow and pig fat. The sepoys had to bite the end of the cartridge off before loading. The troops were angered and refused to use these cartridges because the Muslim faith forbade pig fat and the cow was a sacred animal in the Hindu religion.
Judgment / evaluation
Write your judgment / evaluation.
Was an absence of leadership the main reason why the War of Independence in 1857 failed? Explain your answer. [10]
CAIE marking scheme:
Explains one reason for absence of leadership AND one other reason for 6 marks.
Additional explanation(s) up to a maximum of 9 marks
e.g.
Absence of leadership(Please don’t use headings or bulleted points in your actual answers)
§No single leader e.g. Bahadur Shah was not accepted by most Hindus.
§Many people at the time thought Bahadur Shah did not have strong leadership skills and that he was more of a figurehead.
§Bahadur Shah and the Rani of Jhansi worked alone, and neither would support the other.
Other reasons(Please don’t use headings or bulleted points in your actual answers)
•Lack of unity and common cause amongst the Indian population
•The Punjab was uninterested in helping the rebellion, sending men and supplies to help the British.
•Some of the Indian princes were more interested in restoring their own powers and this often depended upon the support of the British.
•Muslims were more likely to oppose the British in the war but there was not a sense of unity with Sikhs and Hindus who were less likely to support them in their cause.
•A series of uprisings against the British, the Indians were not as coordinated or strong so the British overcame them.
•The British had modern methods of fighting.
•The British army was well disciplined and supplied by some of the local rulers.
•The British used diplomatic as well as military mechanisms (railways, telegraph etc.) to limit the extent of the conflict.
Judgment
Write your judgement / evaluation.
To what extent were economic reforms the main cause of the War of Independence in 1857? Explain your answer. [10]
CAIE marking scheme:
Explains WHY economic reforms AND other causes were important leading to the War
Two explanations, one economic reforms and one on other causes, are worth six or seven marks.
Additional explanations on the same two reasons cannot be awarded more than eight marks.
Explanation of all reasons is worth nine marks
e.g.
Economic reforms(Please don’t use headings or bulleted points in your actual answers)
•The British imposed high taxation to exploit India’s wealth. Peasants and small landowners could not afford this, so many fell into poverty. Resentment grew because of the resulting starvation and suffering;
•The Sepoys were discontented because they did not get a fair deal. Their salaries were very low in comparison with those of the British soldiers and they had little chance of promotion. They were also angry over the lack of payment of extra allowances for service in newly conquered territories like Sindh;
•The East India Company banned the export of cotton from India in 1800. This had a negative impact on many Indian communities who relied on making and selling cotton increasing poverty and also opposition towards the British.
Other causes(Please don’t use headings or bulleted points in your actual answers)
•The replacement of Persian and Sanskrit by English as the official language in the 1830s deeply upset both Muslim and Hindu groups as it was a threat to their culture;
•English became the official language making it more difficult for some of the Muslim community to get higher paying jobs;
•All women were forced to abandon purdah, which had been a custom for centuries and was widespread amongst, and strictly observed by Muslim women. This action by the British was unpopular amongst the Muslim community and opposed;
•In 1852 the ‘Doctrine of Lapse’ was introduced without consultation. This policy caused great unrest because it meant that the British could take over any local kingdom that did not have a direct male heir;
•The British introduced a new rifle with a paper cartridge that was coated in both cow and pig fat. The sepoys had to bite the end of the cartridge off before loading. The troops were angered and refused to use these cartridges because the Muslim faith forbade pig fat and the cow was a sacred animal in the Hindu religion.
Judgment / evaluation
Write your judgement / evaluation.
Why did the War of Independence of 1857 not succeed? [7]
CAIE MARKING SCHEME:
Explains reasons
Five marks for one explanation, six marks for two explanations, seven marks for three explanations
e.g. ·The Indian population were not united in a common cause. ·The Punjab was uninterested in helping the rebellion and actually sent men and supplies to help the British as they did not want imperial power restored. ·This also happened in Kashmir where the ruler sent 2000 troops to help the British as this benefitted his own feudal powers. ·The British had modern methods of fighting and the army was well organised as well as being supplied by some of the local rulers.
To what extent were the different aims of Indian groups in 1857 the main reason why the War of Independence was short-lived? Explain your answer. [10]
Write your answer in 3 paragraphs.
In the first paragraph write your agreement to the given idea in the question that the war was short lived because Indians had different aims.
Use the following points in this paragraph:
•different Indian groups found it difficult to put aside their differences
•there was disunity/absence of a common aim amongst Indian groups/the aims of Indian groups were sometimes unclear
•some Indian groups wanted to restore their old rulers and customs
•some princes were fearful of losing British support
In the second paragraph write counter-arguments (which means you should write other factors which was why the war was short lived).
Use the following points in this paragraph:
·some Indian groups did not have a battle plan or strategy
·some Indian groups had limited leadership and experience in battle
·the British army was experienced in battles
·British troops were well trained and disciplined
·British troops had modern weapons the British army were experienced strategists/administrators/negotiators/ leaders
Now in the 3rd paragraph write your judgment / evaluation.
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